We would like to show you a description here but the site won’t allow us. Download nature of biology 2 activity manual answers nature of biology 2 pdf Nature is a British multidisciplinary scientific journal, first published on 4 November 1869.

1. Nature Of Activity Meaning

Nature Of Activity Meaning

Contents. History The history of textbooks dates back to civilizations of ancient history. For example, wrote texts intended for education. The modern textbook has its roots in the standardization made possible by the printing press. Himself may have printed editions of Ars Minor, a schoolbook on Latin grammar. Early textbooks were used by tutors and teachers, who used the books as instructional aids (e.g., alphabet books), as well as individuals who taught themselves. The Greek philosopher lamented the loss of knowledge because the media of transmission were changing.

Before the invention of the 2,500 years ago, knowledge and stories were recited aloud, much like 's epic poems. The new technology of writing meant stories no longer needed to be memorized, a development Socrates feared would weaken the Greeks' mental capacities for memorizing and retelling. (Ironically, we know about Socrates' concerns only because they were written down by his student in his famous Dialogues.) The next revolution for books came with the 15th-century invention of printing with changeable type. The invention is attributed to German metalsmith, who cast type in molds using a melted metal alloy and constructed a wooden-screw to transfer the image onto paper. Gutenberg's first and only large-scale printing effort was the now iconic in the 1450s — a Latin translation from the Hebrew Old Testament and the, copies of which can be viewed on the British Library website.

Gutenberg's invention made mass production of texts possible for the first time. Although the Gutenberg Bible itself was expensive, printed books began to spread widely over European trade routes during the next 50 years, and by the 16th century, printed books had become more widely accessible and less costly.

And the subsequent growth of schooling in Europe led to the printing of many standardized texts for children. Textbooks have become the primary teaching instrument for most children since the 19th century. Two textbooks of historical significance in United States schooling were the 18th century and the 19th century.

Technological advances change the way people interact with textbooks. Online and digital materials are making it increasingly easy for students to access materials other than the traditional print textbook. Students now have access to electronic and PDF books, online tutoring systems and video lectures. An example of an electronically published book, or e-book, is from. Most notably, an increasing number of authors are foregoing commercial publishers and offering their textbooks under a or other open license. Market The 'broken market' The textbook market does not operate in the same manner as most consumer markets. First, the end consumers (students) do not select the product, and the people (faculty and professors) who do select the product do not purchase it.

Therefore, price is removed from the purchasing decision, giving the producer (publishers) disproportionate market power to set prices high. However, some argue that textbooks are really part of another product; the class that the student registered to take. But the price of the textbook still isn't typically taken into account when this occurs and isn't part of the perception of the product. This fundamental difference in the market is often cited as the primary reason that prices are high. The term 'broken market' first appeared in the economist James Koch's analysis of the market commissioned by the Advisory Committee on Student Financial Assistance.

This situation is exacerbated by the lack of competition in the textbook market. In the past few decades has reduced the number of major textbook companies from around 30 to just a handful. Consequently, there is less competition than there used to be, and the high cost of starting up keeps new companies from entering.

New editions and the used book market Students seek relief from rising prices through the purchase of of textbooks, which tend to be less expensive. Most college bookstores offer used copies of textbooks at lower prices. Most bookstores will also buy used copies back from students at the end of a term if the book is going to be re-used at the school. Books that are not being re-used at the school are often purchased by an off-campus wholesaler for 0-30% of the new cost, for distribution to other bookstores where the books will be sold.

Textbook companies have countered this by encouraging faculty to assign homework that must be done on the publisher's website. If a student has a new textbook, then he or she can use the pass code in the book to register on the site.

If the student has purchased a used textbook, then he or she must pay money directly to the publisher in order to access the website and complete assigned homework. Students who look beyond the campus bookstore can typically find lower prices. With the ISBN or title, author and edition, most textbooks can be located through online used book sellers or retailers. Most leading textbook companies publish a new edition every 3 or 4 years, more frequently in math & science. Harvard economics chair James K. Stock has stated that new editions are often not about significant improvements to the content. 'New editions are to a considerable extent simply another tool used by publishers and textbook authors to maintain their revenue stream, that is, to keep up prices,' A study conducted by The Student found that a new edition costs 12% more than a new copy of previous edition, and 58% more than a used copy of the previous edition.

Textbook publishers maintain these new editions are driven by faculty demand. The Student PIRGs' study found that 76% of faculty said new editions were justified “half of the time or less” and 40% said they were justified “rarely” or “never.” The PIRG study has been criticized by publishers, who argue that the report contains factual inaccuracies regarding the annual average cost of textbooks per student.

The Student PIRGs also point out that recent emphasis on electronic textbooks, or 'eTextbooks,' does not always save students money. Even though the book costs less up-front, the student will not recover any of the cost through resale. Bundling Another publishing industry practice that has been highly criticized is 'bundling,' or shrink-wrapping supplemental items into a textbook.

Supplemental items range from CD-ROMs and workbooks to online passcodes and bonus material. Students do not always have the option to purchase these items separately, and often the one-time-use supplements destroy the resale value of the textbook. According to the Student PIRGs, the typical bundled textbook is 10%-50% more than an unbundled textbook, and 65% of professors said they “rarely” or “never” use the bundled items in their courses. Main article: The latest trend in textbooks is 'open textbooks.' An is a free, openly licensed textbook offered online by its author(s).

According to PIRG, a number of textbooks already exist, and are being used at schools such as MIT and Harvard. A 2010 study published found that open textbooks offer a viable and attractive means to meet faculty and student needs while offering savings of approximately 80% compared to traditional textbook options. Although the largest question seems to be who is going to pay to write them, several state policies suggest that public investment in open textbooks might make sense.

To offer another perspective , any jurisdiction might find itself challenged to find sufficient numbers of credible academics who would be willing to undertake the effort of creating an open textbook without realistic compensation, in order to make such a proposal work. The other challenge involves the reality of publishing, which is that textbooks with good sales and profitability subsidize the creation and publication of low demand but believed to be necessary textbooks. Subsidies skew markets and the elimination of subsidies is disruptive; in the case of low demand textbooks the possibilities following subsidy removal include any or all of the following: higher retail prices, a switch to open textbooks, a reduction of the number of titles published. On the other hand, independent open textbook authoring and publishing models are developing. Most notably, the startup publisher already has dozens of college-level open textbooks that are used by more than 900 institutions in 44 countries. Their business model was to offer the open textbook free online, and then sell ancillary products that students are likely to buy if prices are reasonable - print copies, study guides,.Mobi , download, etc. Flat World Knowledge compensates its authors with on these sales.

With the generated revenue Flat World Knowledge funded high-quality publishing activities with a goal of making the Flat World financial model sustainable. However, in January, 2013 Flat World Knowledge announced their financial model could no longer sustain their free-to-read options for students. Flat World Knowledge intends to have open textbooks available for the 125 highest-enrolled courses on college campuses within the next few years. Are the open textbooks designed for United States K-12 courses.

CK-12 FlexBooks are designed to facilitate conformance to national and United States and individual state textbook standards. CK-12 FlexBooks are licensed under a license. CK-12 FlexBooks are free to use online and offer formats suitable for use on portable personal reading devices and computers - both online and offline. Formats for both and are offered.

School districts may select a title as is or customize the open textbook to meet local instructional standards. The file may be then accessed electronically or printed using any service without paying a royalty, saving 80% or more when compared to traditional textbook options. An example print on demand open textbook title, 'College Algebra' by Stitz & Zeager through Lulu is 608 pages, royalty free, and costs about $20 ordered one at a time (March, 2011).

(Any print on demand service could be used - this is just an example. School districts could easily negotiate even lower prices for bulk purchases to be printed in their own communities.) Teacher's editions are available for educators and parents. Titles have been authored by various individuals and organizations and are vetted for quality prior to inclusion in the CK-12 catalog. An effort is underway to map state educational standards correlations.

Provided a number of titles in use. Is another modular K-12 content non-profit 'empowering educators to deliver and share curricula.'

Selected Curriki materials are also correlated to U.S. State educational standards.

Some Curriki content has been collected into open textbooks and some may be used for modular lessons or special topics. International market pricing Similar to the issue of reimportation of into the U.S. Market, the GAO report also highlights a similar phenomenon in textbook distribution. Retailers and publishers have expressed concern about the re-importation of lower-priced textbooks from international locations. Specifically, they cited the ability students have to purchase books from online distribution channels outside the United States at lower prices, which may result in a loss of sales for U.S.

Additionally, the availability of lower-priced textbooks through these channels has heightened distrust and frustration among students regarding textbook prices, and college stores find it difficult to explain why their textbook prices are higher, according to the National Association of College Stores. Retailers and publishers have also been concerned that some U.S. Retailers may have engaged in reimportation on a large scale by ordering textbooks for entire courses at lower prices from international distribution channels. While the 1998 decision protects the reimportation of copyrighted materials under the, textbook publishers have still attempted to prevent the U.S. Sale of international editions by enforcing contracts which forbid foreign wholesalers from selling to American distributors.

Concerned about the effects of differential pricing on college stores, the National Association of College Stores has called on publishers to stop the practice of selling textbooks at lower prices outside the United States. For example, some U.S. Booksellers arrange for drop-shipments in foreign countries which are then re-shipped to America where the books can be sold online at used prices (for a 'new' unopened book). The authors often getting half-royalties instead of full-royalties, minus the charges for returned books from bookstores. Production Cost distribution According to the National Association of College Stores, the entire cost of the book is justified by expenses, with typically 11.7% of the price of a new book going to the author's royalties (or a committee of editors at the publishing house), 22.7% going to the store, and 64.6% going to the publisher. The store and publisher amounts are slightly higher for Canada. Bookstores and used-book vendors profit from the resale of textbooks on the used market, with publishers only earning profits on sales of new textbooks.

Research According to the GAO study published July 2005: Following closely behind annual increases in tuition and fees at postsecondary institutions, college textbook and supply prices have risen at twice the rate of annual inflation over the last two decades. Rising at an average of 6 percent each year since academic year 1987-1988, compared with overall average price increases of 3 percent per year, college textbook and supply prices trailed tuition and fee increases, which averaged 7 percent per year. Since December 1986, textbook and supply prices have nearly tripled, increasing by 186 percent, while tuition and fees increased by 240 percent and overall prices grew by 72 percent. While increases in textbook and supply prices have followed increases in tuition and fees, the cost of textbooks and supplies for degree-seeking students as a percentage of tuition and fees varies by the type of institution attended. For example, the average estimated cost of books and supplies per first-time, full-time student for academic year 2003-2004 was $898 at 4-year public institutions, or about 26 percent of the cost of tuition and fees. At 2-year public institutions, where low-income students are more likely to pursue a degree program and tuition and fees are lower, the average estimated cost of books and supplies per first-time, full-time student was $886 in academic year 2003-2004, representing almost three-quarters of the cost of tuition and fees. According to the 2nd edition of a study by the United States Public Interest Research Group (US PIRG) published in February 2005 : 'Textbook prices are increasing at more than four times the inflation rate for all finished goods, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics Producer Price Index.

The wholesale prices charged by textbook publishers have jumped 62 percent since 1994, while prices charged for all finished goods increased only 14 percent. Similarly, the prices charged by publishers for general books increased just 19 percent during the same time period.' According to the 2007 edition of the College Board’s Trend in College Pricing Report published October 2007 : 'College costs continue to rise and federal student aid has shown slower growth when adjusted for inflation, while textbooks, as a percentage of total college costs, have remained steady at about 5 percent.' K-12 textbooks In most U.S. Public schools, a local school board votes on which textbooks to purchase from a selection of books that have been approved by the state Department of Education. Teachers receive the books to give to the students for each subject. Teachers are usually not required to use textbooks, however, and many prefer to use other materials instead.

Textbook publishing in the U.S. Is a business primarily aimed at large states. This is due to state purchasing controls over the books, most notably in Texas, where the sets curricula for all courses taught by the state's 1,000+ school districts, and therefore also approves which textbooks can be purchased. High school In recent years, high school textbooks of United States history have come under increasing criticism. Authors such as ( ), ( ) and ( ), make the claim that textbooks contain mythical untruths and omissions, which paint a whitewashed picture that bears little resemblance to what most students learn in universities.

Inaccurately retelling history, through textbooks or other literature, has been practiced in many societies, from ancient to the (USSR) and the. The content of history textbooks is often determined by the political forces of state adoption boards and ideological pressure groups. Science textbooks have been the source of ongoing debates and have come under scrutiny from several organizations. The presentation or inclusion of controversial scientific material has been debated in several court cases. Poorly designed textbooks have been cited as contributing to declining grades in mathematics and science in the United States and organizations such as the (AAAS) have criticized the layout, presentation, and amount of material given in textbooks.

Discussions of textbooks have been included on and in the public education debate. The case brought forward a debate about scientific fact being presented in textbooks. In his book, the late physics laureate described his experiences as a member of a committee that evaluated science textbooks. At some instances, there were nonsensical examples to illustrate physical phenomena; then a company sent — for reasons of timing — a textbook that contained blank pages, which even got good critiques. Feynman himself experienced attempts at bribery.

Mathematics. This section does not any. Unsourced material may be challenged. (May 2016) Largely in the US, but increasingly in other nations, K-12 Mathematics textbooks have reflected the controversies of and which have sought to replace in what have been called the. Traditional texts, still favored in Asia and other areas, merely taught the same time-tested mathematics that most adults have learned.

By contrast 'progressive' approaches seek to address problems in social inequity with approaches that often incorporate principles of and discovery. Texts such as and discourage or omit standard mathematics methods and concepts such as long division and lowest common denominators. For example, an index entry to multiply fractions would lead to 'devise your own method to multiply fractions which work on these examples', and the formula for the area of a circle would be an exercise for a student to derive rather than including it in the student text. By the 2000s, while some districts were still adopting the more novel methods, others had abandoned them as unworkable.

Higher education In the U.S., college and university textbooks are chosen by the professor teaching the course, or by the department as a whole. Students are typically responsible for obtaining their own copies of the books used in their courses, although alternatives to owning textbooks, such as textbook rental services and library reserve copies of texts, are available in some instances.

In some European countries, such as Sweden or Spain, students attending institutions of higher education pay for textbooks themselves, although higher education is free of charge otherwise. With higher education costs on the rise, many students are becoming sensitive to every aspect of college pricing, including textbooks, which in many cases amount to one tenth of tuition costs.

The 2005 Government Accountability Office report on college textbooks said that since the 1980s, textbook and supply prices have risen twice the rate of inflation in the past two decades. A 2005 PIRG study found that textbooks cost students $900 per year, and that prices increased four times the rate of inflation over the past decade. A June 2007 Advisory Committee on Student Financial Assistance (ACSFA) report, “Turn the Page,” reported that the average U.S. Student spends $700–$1000 per year on textbooks. While many groups have assigned blame to publishers, bookstores or faculty, the ACSFA also found that assigning blame to any one party—faculty, colleges, bookstores or publishers—for current textbook costs is unproductive and without merit. The report called on all parties within the industry to work together to find productive solutions, which included a movement toward and other lower-cost digital solutions.

Textbook prices are considerably higher in law school. Students ordinarily pay close to $200 for case books consisting of cases available free online. Textbook bias on controversial topics In cases of history, science, current events, and political textbooks, 'the writer might be biased towards one way or another. Topics such as actions of a country, presidential actions, and scientific theories are common potential biases'. Inclusive education Textbooks are an important aspect of in how they incorporate inclusive language, diverse identities, and human rights, particularly as they reflect issues of culture, gender, and religion. Culture The defense of, as understood by, is an ethical imperative, inseparable from children’s universal.

It implies a commitment to the fundamental rights of persons belonging to minorities and to the that are an integral part of. Culture is also central to contemporary debates on citizenship and identity, social cohesion, and the growth of knowledge- based economies.

Education has a major part to play in shaping such dialogues as cultural exchanges and economic cooperation become increasingly more common. Textbooks can be used to promote cultural diversity and, in particular, nurture culture in its broadest sense understood as the “whole complex of distinctive spiritual, material, intellectual and emotional features that characterize a society or social group.” Gender Having concentrated on rooting out and prejudice in textbooks as early as 1946, in the 1970s UNESCO started to tackle, which are recognized as a source of enduring inequality between women and men. A research programme on the image of women was launched after the 1980 Copenhagen World Conference of the to identify and characterize sexism and recommend various steps to eliminate it. The programme showed that in textbooks often consists of failing to recognize the range of actual roles played by men and women in society and neglecting the real advances that have been made in terms of gender equality.

Textbooks should help students understand the roles most often assigned to women and men and recognize those aspects of social change needed to build a fairer social order that includes both sexes and on an equal footing with the mainstream society. Discussions prompted by reading textbooks and teacher-pupil interactions can be used to address, question, and dismiss stereotypes. Relating examples from past societies and telling stories that give prominence to other gender categories (besides men and women) and other (besides ) can show the prejudicial effect of the division of humankind into two sexes and the imposition of heterosexuality. Religion With the rise of, the multiplicity of world views and religious practices that individuals confront has increased. Textbooks are instrumental in the process of raising awareness about others’ beliefs and fostering understanding of, and respect for, the diversity of beliefs present in societies and the world at large. Textbooks can help to combat prejudice, present pluralism as an asset, and encourage mutual understandings based on respect for the right to express one’s beliefs.

They contribute to promoting tolerance, critical thinking in the face of divisive stereotyping and discrimination, and the independence of individual choice. Sources This article incorporates text from a work. Licensed under CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0:, 8-11, UNESCO, UNESCO. To learn how to add text to Wikipedia articles, please see. For information on, please see.

See also. 'the innovator who first introduced pictorial textbooks, written in native language instead of Latin, applied effective teaching based on the natural gradual growth from simple to more comprehensive concepts, supported lifelong learning and development of logical thinking by moving from dull memorization'. 1658 textbook by, one of the first books with pictures for children. A special type of textbook used in. 2013 decision of the US Supreme Court regarding textbook resale.

– collection of texts, often used in social sciences and humanities in the United States. Usually filled with practice problems, where the answers can be written directly in the book. A textbook, usually graduate level, organized as a series of problems and full solutions. A textbook licensed under an open copyright license, and made available online to be freely used References.